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<h1> 2 UNIX Philosophy and Hostory </h1>

<div class="TOC">
<dl>
	<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
	<dt>2.1    <a href="chapter2.html#PHILOSOPHY">	Philosophy 	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2    <a href="chapter2.html#HISTORY">	History    	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2.1  <a href="chapter2.html#1960s">	1960s      	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2.2  <a href="chapter2.html#1970s">	1970s      	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2.3  <a href="chapter2.html#1980s">	1980s      	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2.4  <a href="chapter2.html#1990s">	1990s     	 </a></dt>
	<dt>2.2.5  <a href="chapter2.html#PRESENT">	2000 to present	 </a></dt>
</dl>
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<!------------------ 2.1 Philosophy ---------------------------------------->
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="PHILOSOPHY" name="PHILOSOPHY">2.1 Philosophy</a></h1>
<p>
  The Unix philosophy is a set of cultural norms and philosophical approaches to developing software based on the 
  experience of leading developers of the Unix operating system.<br>
  <br>
  <span class="emphasis">
	<i class="EMPHASIS">
	  Doug McIlroy (the inventor of Unix pipes and one of the founders of the Unix tradition): 
	</i><br>
	"This is the Unix philosophy: Write programs that do one thing and do it well. Write programs to work together.
	 Write programs to handle text streams, because that is a universal interface."
  </span><br>
  <br>
  <span class="emphasis">
	<i class="EMPHASIS">
	  Mike Gancarz (a member of the team that designed the X Window System):
	</i><br>
	  <ul style="list-style-type:none;">
			<li> 1. Small is beautiful.                                     </li>
			<li> 2. Make each program do one thing well.                   </li> 
			<li> 3. Build a prototype as soon as possible.                 </li>
			<li> 4. Choose portability over efficiency.                    </li>
			<li> 5. Store data in flat text files                          </li>
			<li> 6. Use software leverage to your advantage.               </li>
			<li> 7. Use shell scripts to increase leverage and portability.</li>
			<li> 8. Avoid captive user interfaces.                         </li>
			<li> 9. Make every program a filter.                           </li>
	  </ul>
  </span>
</p>

<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy"> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy</a>
</small>
</div>

<!------------------ 2.2 History ---------------------------------------->
<div class="SECT2">
<h1 class="SECT2"><a id="HISTORY" name="HISTORY">2.2 History</a></h1>
<p>
  <table>
	<tbody>
	  <tr> <td>1973</td> <td> First UNIX system by AT&T										</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1979</td> <td> UNIX V6 (1BSD) with C, UUCP, Bourne Shell						</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1980</td> <td> Microsoft: Xenix												</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1984</td> <td> U. of California (Berkeley): 4.2BSD with TCP/IP				</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1986</td> <td> U. of California (Berkeley): 4.3BSD with DNS and NFS			</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1987</td> <td> MIT: X11 (; XFree86)											</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1991</td> <td> U. of California (Berkeley): stop financial support of BSD	</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1991</td> <td> 386BSD splits into FreeBSD and NetBSD							</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1991</td> <td> Linus Torvalds: Linux											</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1993</td> <td> Novell buys AT&T UNIX Lab										</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1993</td> <td> FreeBSD 1.0													</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1994</td> <td> Linux 1.0														</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1995</td> <td> OpenBSD splits from NetBSD (security)							</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1995</td> <td> SCO buys UNIX from Novell										</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1995</td> <td> Apache 0.6.2													</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1995</td> <td> FreeBSD 2.0													</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1998</td> <td> KDE 1.0														</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>1999</td> <td> GNOME 1.0														</td> </tr>
	  <tr> <td>2005</td> <td> X.org splits from XFree86										</td> </tr>
	</tbody>
  </table><br>
  <br>
</div>

<div class="SECT2_1">
<p>
<h2 class="SECT2_1"><a id="1960s" name="1960s">2.2.1 1960s</a></h2>
In the 1960s, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, AT&T Bell Labs, and General Electric worked on an experimental
operating system called Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), which was designed to run on the GE-645
mainframe computer. Multics was an interactive operating system with many novel capabilities, including enhanced 
security.<br>
<br>
AT&T Bell Labs pulled out of the Multics project and deployed its resources elsewhere. One of the developers on the Bell
Labs team, Ken Thompson, continued to develop for the GE-645 mainframe, and wrote a game for that computer called Space
Travel. However, he found that the game was too slow on the GE machine and was expensive, costing $75 per execution in
scarce computing time.<br>
<br>
Thompson thus re-wrote the game in assembly language for Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-7 with help from Dennis
Ritchie. This experience, combined with his work on the Multics project, led Thompson to start a new operating system for
the PDP-7. Thompson and Ritchie led a team of developers, including Rudd Canaday, at Bell Labs developing a file system as
well as the new multi-tasking operating system itself. They included a command line interpreter and some small utility
programs.  
</p>
<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#History"> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#History</a>
</small>
</div>

<div class="SECT2_2">
<h2 class="SECT2_2"><a id="1970s" name="1970s">2.2.2 1970s</a></h2>
<p>
In the 1970s the project was named Unics, and eventually could support two simultaneous users. Brian Kernighan invented 
this name as a contrast to Multics; the spelling was later changed to Unix.<br>
<br>
Up until this point there had been no financial support from Bell Labs. When the Computer Science Research Group wanted to 
use Unix on a much larger machine than the PDP-7, Thompson and Ritchie managed to trade the promise of adding text 
processing capabilities to Unix for a PDP-11/20 machine. This led to some financial support from Bell. For the first time 
in 1970, the Unix operating system was officially named and ran on the PDP-11/20. It added a text formatting program called 
roff and a text editor. All three were written in PDP-11/20 assembly language.<br>
<br>
In 1973, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language, contrary to the general notion at the time "that something as 
complex as an operating system, which must deal with time-critical events, had to be written exclusively in assembly 
language". The migration from assembly language to the higher-level language C resulted in much more portable software, 
requiring only a relatively small amount of machine-dependent code to be replaced when porting Unix to other computing 
platforms.<br>
<br>
AT&T made Unix available to universities and commercial firms, as well as the United States government under licenses. The 
licenses included all source code including the machine-dependent parts of the kernel, which were written in PDP-11 
assembly code. Copies of the annotated Unix kernel sources circulated widely in the late 1970s in the form of a much-copied 
book by John Lions of the University of New South Wales, the Lions' Commentary on UNIX 6th Edition, with Source Code, which 
led to considerable use of Unix as an educational example.<br>
<br>
Development expanded, with Versions 4, 5, and 6 being released by 1975. These versions added the concept of pipes, leading 
to the development of a more modular code-base, increasing development speed still further.<br>
<br>
In 1978, UNIX/32V, for DEC's then new VAX system, was released. By this time, over 600 machines were running Unix in some 
form. Version 7 Unix, the last version of Research Unix to be released widely, was released in 1979. Versions 8, 9 and 10 
were developed through the 1980s but were only released to a few universities, though they did generate papers describing 
the new work. This research led to the development of Plan 9 from Bell Labs, a new portable distributed system.
</p>
<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#1970s">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#1970s</a>
</small>
</div>


<div class="SECT2_3">
<h2 class="SECT2_3"><a id="1980s" name="1980s">2.2.3 1980s</a></h2>
<p>
AT&T licensed UNIX System III, based largely on Version 7, for commercial use, the first version launching in 1982. This 
also included support for the VAX. AT&T continued to issue licenses for older Unix versions. To end the confusion between 
all its differing internal versions, AT&T combined them into UNIX System V Release 1. This introduced a few features such 
as the vi editor and curses from the Berkeley Software Distribution of Unix developed at the University of California, 
Berkeley. This also included support for the Western Electric 3B series of machines.<br>
<br>
Since the newer commercial UNIX licensing terms were not as favorable for academic use as the older versions of Unix, the 
Berkeley researchers continued to develop BSD Unix as an alternative to UNIX System III and V, originally on the PDP-11 
architecture (the 2.xBSD releases, ending with 2.11BSD) and later for the VAX-11 (the 4.x BSD releases). Many contributions 
to Unix first appeared on BSD releases, notably the C shell with job control (modelled on ITS). Perhaps the most important 
aspect of the BSD development effort was the addition of TCP/IP network code to the mainstream Unix kernel. The BSD effort 
produced several significant releases that contained network code: 4.1cBSD, 4.2BSD, 4.3BSD, 4.3BSD-Tahoe ("Tahoe" being the 
nickname of the Computer Consoles Inc. Power 6/32 architecture that was the first non-DEC release of the BSD kernel), 
Net/1, 4.3BSD-Reno (to match the "Tahoe" naming, and that the release was something of a gamble), Net/2, 4.4BSD, and 
4.4BSD-lite. The network code found in these releases is the ancestor of much TCP/IP network code in use today, including 
code that was later released in AT&T System V UNIX and early versions of Microsoft Windows. The accompanying Berkeley 
sockets API is a de facto standard for networking APIs and has been copied on many platforms.<br>
<br>
Other companies began to offer commercial versions of the UNIX System for their own mini-computers and workstations. Most 
of these new Unix flavors were developed from the System V base under a license from AT&T; however, others were based on 
BSD instead. One of the leading developers of BSD, Bill Joy, went on to co-found Sun Microsystems in 1982 and created SunOS 
(now Solaris) for their workstation computers. In 1980, Microsoft announced its first Unix for 16-bit microcomputers called 
Xenix, which the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) ported to the Intel 8086 processor in 1983, and eventually branched Xenix into 
SCO UNIX in 1989.<br>
<br>
For a few years during this period (before PC compatible computers with MS-DOS became dominant), industry observers 
expected that UNIX, with its portability and rich capabilities, was likely to become the industry standard operating system 
for microcomputers. In 1984 several companies established the X/Open consortium with the goal of creating an open system 
specification based on UNIX. Despite early progress, the standardization effort collapsed into the "Unix wars," with 
various companies forming rival standardization groups. The most successful Unix-related standard turned out to be the 
IEEE's POSIX specification, designed as a compromise API readily implemented on both BSD and System V platforms, published 
in 1988 and soon mandated by the United States government for many of its own systems.<br>
<br>
AT&T added various features into UNIX System V, such as file locking, system administration, STREAMS, new forms of IPC, the 
Remote File System and TLI. AT&T cooperated with Sun Microsystems and between 1987 and 1989 merged features from Xenix, 
BSD, SunOS, and System V into System V Release 4 (SVR4), independently of X/Open. This new release consolidated all the 
previous features into one package, and heralded the end of competing versions. It also increased licensing fees.<br>
<br>
During this time a number of vendors including Digital Equipment, Sun, Addamax and others began building trusted versions 
of UNIX for high security applications, mostly designed for military and law enforcement applications.
</p>
<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#1980s">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#1980s</a>
</small>
</div>


<div class="SECT2_4">
<h2 class="SECT2_4"><a id="1990s" name="1990s">2.2.4 1990s</a></h2>
<p>
In 1990, the Open Software Foundation released OSF/1, their standard Unix implementation, based on Mach and BSD. The Foundation was started in 1988 and was funded by several Unix-related companies that wished to counteract the collaboration of AT&T and Sun on SVR4. Subsequently, AT&T and another group of licensees formed the group "UNIX International" in order to counteract OSF. This escalation of conflict between competing vendors gave rise again to the phrase "Unix wars".<br>
<br>
In 1991, a group of BSD developers (Donn Seeley, Mike Karels, Bill Jolitz, and Trent Hein) left the University of California to found Berkeley Software Design, Inc (BSDI). BSDI produced a fully functional commercial version of BSD Unix for the inexpensive and ubiquitous Intel platform, which started a wave of interest in the use of inexpensive hardware for production computing. Shortly after it was founded, Bill Jolitz left BSDI to pursue distribution of 386BSD, the free software ancestor of FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD.<br>
<br>
By 1993 most commercial vendors had changed their variants of Unix to be based on System V with many BSD features added on top. The creation of the COSE initiative that year by the major players in Unix marked the end of the most notorious phase of the Unix wars, and was followed by the merger of UI and OSF in 1994. The new combined entity, which retained the OSF name, stopped work on OSF/1 that year. By that time the only vendor using it was Digital, which continued its own development, rebranding their product Digital UNIX in early 1995.<br>
<br>
Shortly after UNIX System V Release 4 was produced, AT&T sold all its rights to UNIX to Novell. (Dennis Ritchie likened this to the Biblical story of Esau selling his birthright for the proverbial "mess of pottage".) Novell developed its own version, UnixWare, merging its NetWare with UNIX System V Release 4. Novell tried to use this to battle against Windows NT, but their core markets suffered considerably.<br>
<br>
In 1993, Novell decided to transfer the UNIX® trademark and certification rights to the X/Open Consortium.[7] In 1996, X/Open merged with OSF, creating the Open Group. Various standards by the Open Group now define what is and what is not a "UNIX" operating system, notably the post-1998 Single UNIX Specification.<br>
<br>
In 1995, the business of administering and supporting the existing UNIX licenses, plus rights to further develop the System V code base, were sold by Novell to the Santa Cruz Operation.Whether Novell also sold the copyrights is currently the subject of litigation.<br>
<br>
In 1997, Apple Computer sought out a new foundation for its Macintosh operating system and chose NEXTSTEP, an operating system developed by NeXT. The core operating system, which was based on BSD and the Mach kernel, was renamed Darwin after Apple acquired it. The deployment of Darwin in Mac OS X makes it, according to a statement made by an Apple employee at a USENIX conference, the most widely used Unix-based system in the desktop computer market.
</p>
<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#19790s">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#1990s</a>
</small>
</div>


<div class="SECT2_5">
<h2 class="SECT2_5"><a id="PRESENT" name="PRESENT">2.2.5 2000 to present</a></h2>
<p>
In 2000, SCO sold its entire UNIX business and assets to Caldera Systems, which later on changed its name to The SCO Group.<br>
<br>
The Dot-com crash (2001-2003) has led to significant consolidation of versions of Unix. Of the many commercial flavors of Unix that were born in the 1980s, only Solaris, HP-UX, and AIX are still doing relatively well in the market, though SGI's IRIX persisted for quite some time. Of these, Solaris has the largest market share.<br>
<br>
In 2003, the SCO Group started legal action against various users and vendors of Linux. SCO had alleged that Linux contained copyrighted Unix code now owned by The SCO Group. Other allegations included trade-secret violations by IBM, or contract violations by former Santa Cruz customers who had since converted to Linux. However, Novell disputed the SCO Group's claim to hold copyright on the UNIX source base. According to Novell, SCO (and hence the SCO Group) are effectively franchise operators for Novell, which also retained the core copyrights, veto rights over future licensing activities of SCO, and 95% of the licensing revenue. The SCO Group disagreed with this, and the dispute resulted in the SCO v. Novell lawsuit. On August 10, 2007, a major portion of the case (the fact that Novell had the copyright to UNIX, and that the SCO Group had improperly kept money that was due to Novell) was decided in Novell's favor. The court also ruled that "SCO is obligated to recognize Novell's waiver of SCO's claims against IBM and Sequent". After the ruling, Novell announced they have no interest in suing people over Unix and stated, "We don't believe there is Unix in Linux".<br>
<br>
In 2005, Sun Microsystems released the bulk of its Solaris system code (based on UNIX System V Release 4) into an open source project called OpenSolaris. New Sun OS technologies such as the ZFS file system are now first released as open source code via the OpenSolaris project; as of 2006 OpenSolaris has spawned several non-Sun distributions such as SchilliX, Belenix, Nexenta, and MarTux.
</p>
<small>
Reference <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#2000_to_present">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix#2000_to_present</a>
</small>
</div>

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